Journal of Water and Wastewater Science and Engineering

Journal of Water and Wastewater Science and Engineering

Determining the Instantaneous Peak Factor in Water Distribution Networks

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
1 PhD Student, Faculty of Civil, Water and Environmental Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
2 Associate Professor, Faculty of Civil, Water and Environmental Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
Water Distribution Networks (WDNs) are typically designed based on the Hourly Peak Factor (HPF), which represents the ratio between the maximum and average hourly flow during a day. However, to achieve optimal WDN operation, it is necessary to analyze water demand changes at sub-hourly (instantaneous) time intervals. Due to the lack of data on sub-hourly Peak Factors (PFs), this study calculates PFs for various sub-hourly intervals using flow field data from different WDNs. The results indicate that the PF increases as both population size and time interval decrease. For instance, in populations of 1,000 and 10,000, the PF increases by 53% and 33%, respectively, when the time interval is reduced from one hour to half an hour. Based on the findings, a new equation is proposed to estimate PF based on population and time interval parameters. Additionally, the HPFs in WDNs were compared with those from various references, including the 117-3 standard. The findings of this study can be applied to the design and operation of WDNs.
Keywords

تابش، م.، قره‌خانی، ب.، و حیدرزاده، ر.، (1394)، "بررسی میدانی ضرایب حداکثر مصرف آب (مطالعه موردی: تهران و کاشمر)"، کنفرانس و نمایشگاه مهندسی آب، تهران، ایران.
سازمان برنامه و بودجه، (1371)، "ضوابط طراحی سامانه­های انتقال و توزیع آب شهری و روستایی"، نشریه 3-117، دفتر مهندسی و معیار­های فنی وزارت نیرو.
مرادی سبزکوهی، ع.، کاشفی‎پور، س.م.، و سلیمی چم‎کاکایی، آ.، (1393)، "بررسی میدانی ضریب حداکثر تقاضا در شبکه‌های توزیع آب روستایی (شمال شرق خوزستان)"، مجله آب و فاضلاب، 25، 52-44.
معاون نظارت و راهبردی ریاست جمهوری، (1392)، "ضوابط طراحی سامانه­های انتقال و توزیع آب شهری و روستایی"، نشریه 3-117 (بازنگری اول)، دفتر مهندسی و معیار­های فنی وزارت نیرو.
Adams, R.W., (1961), “The analysis of distribution systems”, Institution of Water Engineering, 15, 415-428.
Babbitt, H.E., (1928), Sewerage and sewage treatment, John Wiley & Sons Inc, London, New York, USA.
Balacco, G., Carbonara, A., Gioia, A., Iacobellis, V., and Piccinni, A.F., (2017), “Evaluation of peak water demand factors in Puglia (Southern Italy)”, Water, 9, 96, https://doi.org/10.3390/w9020096.
Balacco, G., Carbonara, A., Gioia, A., Iacobellis, V., and Piccinni, A.F., (2018), “Investigation of peak water demand variability at local scale in Puglia (Southern Italy)”, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute Proceedings, 2, 674, https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2110674.
Briere, F.G., (2014), Drinking-water distribution, sewage, and rainfall collection, Third Edition, Presses inter Polytechnique, Canada.
 Clark, J.W., Viessman, W., and Hammer, M.J., (1969), Water supply and pollution control, Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York, USA.
Davis, C.V., and Sorensen, K.E., (1980), Handbook of applied hydraulics, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Diao, K., Barjenbruch, M., and Bracklow, U., (2010), “Study on the impacts of peaking factors on a water distribution system in Germany”, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 10, 165-172, https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2010.168.
Deutscher Verein des Gas-und Wasserfaches (DVGW), (2004), Worksheet W 400-1, German Technical and Scientific Association for Gas and Water. 
 Deutscher Verein des Gas-und Wasserfaches (DVGW), (2007), Worksheet W 410, German Technical and Scientific Association for Gas and Water. 
Gargano, R., Tricarico, C., and De Marinis, G., (2010), “Residential water demand–daily trends”,  Proceedings of the Annual International Symposium on Water Distribution Systems Analysis, 1314-1323, https://doi.org/10.1061/41203(425)118.
Gato-Trinidad, S., and Gan, K., (2012), “Characterizing maximum residential water demand”, Urban Water, 122, 15-24, https://doi.org/10.2495/uw120021.
Gifft, H.M., (1945), “Estimating variations in domestic sewage flows”, Water Works Sewerage, Chicago, USA.
Goodrich, R., (1942), “Capacity tests of ground-water sources at Laramie, Wyoming", Journal of American Water Works Association, 1629-1634, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1942.tb17293.x.
Hammer, M.J., (1986), Water and wastewater technology,   John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York, USA.
Harmon, W.G., (1918), “Forecasting sewage at Toledo under dry weather conditions”, Engineering News Record, 80, 1233.
Ippolito, G., and DE Martino, G., (1995), Appunti di costruzioni idrauliche, Liguori Editore, Italy.
Johnson, C.F., (1942), “Relation between average and extreme sewage flow rates”, Engineering News Record, 129, 500-501.
Johnson, E., (1999), “Degree of utilisation, The reciprocal of the peak factor, Its application in the operation of a water supply and distribution system, WATER
SA-PRETORIA
-, 25, 111-114.
Martínez-Solano, J., Iglesias-Rey, P.L.,
Perez-Garcia, R., and López-Jimenez, P.A. (2008), “Hydraulic analysis of peak demand in looped water distribution networks”, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 134, 504-510, https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9496(2008)134:6(504).
Metcalf, L., and Eddy, H.P., (1915), American sewerage practice, Vol. 3, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.  
Research, C.F.S.A.I., (2003), “Guidelines for human settlement and design”, A Report Compiled Under the Patronage of the Department of Housing by the CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa: CSIR Building and Construction Technology.
Scheepers, H.M., (2012), “Deriving peak factors for residential indoor water demand by means of a probability based end-use model”, PhD. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.
Tchobanoglous, G., and Schroeder, E., (1987), Water Quality, Addison and Wesley, Reading, MA.
Tricarico, C., De Marinis, G., Gargano, R., and Leopardi, A., (2007), “Peak residential water demand”,  Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Water Management, Thomas Telford Ltd, 115-121, https://doi.org/10.1680/wama.2007.160.2.115.
Tricarico, C., Morley, M.S., Gargano, R., Kapelan, Z., De Marinis, G., and Savić, D., (2014), “The influence of the existing network layout on water distribution system redesign analysis”, Journal of Hydroinformatics, 16, 1375-1389, https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2014.017.
Zhang, X., (2005), “Estimating peaking factors with Poisson rectangular pulse model and extreme value theory”, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3638-9_3.
Zhang, X., Buchberger, S.G., and Van Zyl, J.E., (2005), “A theoretical explanation for peaking factors”, Impacts of Global Climate Change, (pp. 1-12), https://doi.org/10.1061/40792(173)51.  
Volume 10, Issue 2
Summer 2025
Pages 19-28

  • Receive Date 24 April 2023
  • Revise Date 05 September 2023
  • Accept Date 10 September 2023