Application of Secondary Treated Municipal Wastewater for Irrigation of Agricultural Lands: Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment of Legionella

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Assistant Professor of Environmental Health Engineering, Educational Development Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences

2 Professor of Environmental Health Engineering, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences

3 Associate Professor of Statistics & Epidemiology, Department of Statistics & Epidemiology, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences

Abstract

Water scarcity is a main issue in most countries in the worldwide. Nowadays, irrigation with treated wastewater is becoming a necessary alternative to addressing issues of water shortage, especially in arid and semiarid countries.The potential health risks and environmental impacts resulting from inadequate microbial quality of treated wastewater have been well known and is a challenge for developing countries. In this study 25 effluent samples were collected from Isfahan wastewater treatment plant and presence of Legionella in STWW samples were monitored using nested real time PCR. As well as using the quantitative microbial risk assessment model, Legionella risk due to the use of secondary effluent for spray irrigation of agricultural lands for farmers was determined. Legionella was detected in %84 of STWW samples. The mean annual Legionella disease risk ranged from 7.7 × 10-8 to 1.5 × 10-5 pppy which was lower than the reference level of 10-3 pppy has been recommended by WHO.  The results of this study showed that use of STWW for irrigation, dose note significant health risk associated with Legionella for farmers. Also, STWW could be used as an alternative source for agricultural irrigation in semiarid areas.
 

Keywords

 

Ajibode, O.M., Rock, C., Bright, K., Mclain, J.E., Gerba, C.P. and Pepper, I.L., (2013), “Influence of residence time of reclaimed water within distribution systems on water quality”, Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 3(3), 185-196.  

Armstrong, T.W., and Haas, C.N., (2007a), “A quantitative microbial risk assessment model for legionnaires' disease: Animal model selection and dose‐response modeling”, Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 27(6), 1581-1596. 

Armstrong, T.W. and Haas, C.N., (2007b), “Quantitative microbial risk assessment model for legionnaires' disease: Assessment of human exposures for selected spa outbreaks”, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 4(8), 634-646. 

Armstrong, T.W. and Haas, C.N., (2008), “Legionnaires' disease: Evaluation of a quantitative microbial risk assessment model”, Journal of Water and Health, 6(2), 149-166. 

Asghari, F.B., Nikaeen, M., Hatamzadeh, M., and Hassanzadeh, A., (2013), “Surveillance of legionella species in hospital water systems: The significance of detection method for environmental surveillance data”,  Journal of Water and Health, 11(4), 713-719. 

Ayers, R., and Westcot, D., (1985), Water quality for agriculture. fao irrigation and drainage, paper 29 rev. 1, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, 1, 74.

Bahri, A., Drechsel, P., Raschid-sally, L., and Redwood, M., (2009), Wastewater irrigation and health: Assessing and mitigating risk in low-income countries”, Routledge.

Becerra-Castro, C., Lopes, A.R., Vaz-moreira, I., Silva, E.F., Manaia, C.M., and Nunes, O.C., (2015), “Wastewater reuse in irrigation: A microbiological perspective on implications in soil fertility and human and environmental health”, Environment International, 75(2), 117-135.

Bitton, G., (2005). Wastewater microbiology, John Wiley & Sons.

Blanky, M., Rodríguez-martínez, S., Halpern, M., and Friedler, E., (2015), “Legionella pneumophila: From potable water to treated greywater; quantification and removal during treatment”, Science of the Total Environment, 533(22), 557-565.

Blanky, M., Sharaby, Y., Rodríguez-martínez, S., Halpern, M. and Friedler, E., (2017), “Greywater reuse-assessment of the health risk induced by legionella pneumophila”, Water Research, 125(18), 410-417.

Caicedo, C., Beutel, S., Scheper, T., Rosenwinkel, K., and Nogueira, R., (2016), “Occurrence of legionella in wastewater treatment plants linked to wastewater characteristics”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(16), 16873-16881.

Catalan, V., Garcia, F., Moreno, C., Vila, M., and Apraiz, D., (1997), “Detection of legionella pneumophila in wastewater by nested polymerase chain reaction”, Research in Microbiology, 148(1), 71-78.

Chhipi-Shrestha, G., Hewage, K., and Sadiq, R., (2017), “Microbial quality of reclaimed water for urban reuses: Probabilistic risk-based investigation and recommendations”, Science of The Total Environment, 576(15), 738-751.

Elgallal, M., Fletcher, L., and Evans, B., (2016), “Assessment of potential risks associated with chemicals in wastewater used for irrigation in arid and semiarid zones: A review”, Agricultural Water Management, 177, 419-431.

Hamilton, K.A., Hamilton, M.T., Johnson, W., Jjemba, P., Bukhari, Z., Lechevallier, M., and Haas, C.N., (2018), “Health risks from exposure to legionella in reclaimed water aerosols: Toilet flushing, spray irrigation, and cooling towers”, Water Research, 134(7), 261-279.

Jasim, S.Y., Saththasivam, J., Loganathan, K., Ogunbiyi, O.O., and Sarp, S., (2016), “Reuse of treated sewage effluent (tse) in qatar”,  Journal of Water Process Engineering, 11(3), 174-182.

Jjemba, P.K., Johnson, W., Bukhari, Z., and Lechevallier, M.W., (2015), “Occurrence and control of legionella in recycled water systems”, Pathogens, 4(3), 470-502.

Jjemba, P.K., Weinrich, L.A., Cheng, W., Giraldo, E., and Lechevallier, M.W., (2010), “Regrowth of potential opportunistic pathogens and algae in reclaimed-water distribution systems”, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(13), 4169-4178.

Lehane, S., (2014). The Iranian water crisis, Strategic Analysis Paper, Global Food and Water Crises Research Programme, Future Directions International Pty Ltd.: Perth, Australia, 11.

Mirzaee, S.A., Nikaeen, M., Hajizadeh, Y., Nabavi, B.F., and Hassanzadeh, A., (2015), “Detection of legionella spp. by a nested-pcr assay in air samples of a wastewater treatment plant and downwind distances in isfahan”, Advanced Biomedical Research, 4(48), 1-4.

WHO, (2006), Guidelines for the safe use of wasterwater excreta and greywater, Geneva, Switzerland.

Pepper, I.L., and Gerba, C.P., (2018), “Risk of infection from legionella associated with spray irrigation of reclaimed water”, Water Research, 139(12), 101-107.

Prussin ii, A.J., Schwake, D.O., and Marr, L.C., (2017). “Ten questions concerning the aerosolization and transmission of legionella in the built environment”, Building and Environment, 123(13), 684-695.

Scheierling, S.M., Bartone, C.R., Mara, D.D., and Drechsel, P., (2011), “Towards an agenda for improving wastewater use in agriculture”, Water International, 36(4), 420-440.

References

 
Ajibode, O.M., Rock, C., Bright, K., Mclain, J.E., Gerba, C.P. and Pepper, I.L., (2013), “Influence of residence time of reclaimed water within distribution systems on water quality”, Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 3(3), 185-196.  
Armstrong, T.W., and Haas, C.N., (2007a), “A quantitative microbial risk assessment model for legionnaires' disease: Animal model selection and dose‐response modeling”, Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 27(6), 1581-1596. 
Armstrong, T.W. and Haas, C.N., (2007b), “Quantitative microbial risk assessment model for legionnaires' disease: Assessment of human exposures for selected spa outbreaks”, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 4(8), 634-646. 
Armstrong, T.W. and Haas, C.N., (2008), “Legionnaires' disease: Evaluation of a quantitative microbial risk assessment model”, Journal of Water and Health, 6(2), 149-166. 
Asghari, F.B., Nikaeen, M., Hatamzadeh, M., and Hassanzadeh, A., (2013), “Surveillance of legionella species in hospital water systems: The significance of detection method for environmental surveillance data”,  Journal of Water and Health, 11(4), 713-719. 
Ayers, R., and Westcot, D., (1985), Water quality for agriculture. fao irrigation and drainage, paper 29 rev. 1, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, 1, 74.
Bahri, A., Drechsel, P., Raschid-sally, L., and Redwood, M., (2009), Wastewater irrigation and health: Assessing and mitigating risk in low-income countries”, Routledge.
Becerra-Castro, C., Lopes, A.R., Vaz-moreira, I., Silva, E.F., Manaia, C.M., and Nunes, O.C., (2015), “Wastewater reuse in irrigation: A microbiological perspective on implications in soil fertility and human and environmental health”, Environment International, 75(2), 117-135.
Bitton, G., (2005). Wastewater microbiology, John Wiley & Sons.
Blanky, M., Rodríguez-martínez, S., Halpern, M., and Friedler, E., (2015), “Legionella pneumophila: From potable water to treated greywater; quantification and removal during treatment”, Science of the Total Environment, 533(22), 557-565.
Blanky, M., Sharaby, Y., Rodríguez-martínez, S., Halpern, M. and Friedler, E., (2017), “Greywater reuse-assessment of the health risk induced by legionella pneumophila”, Water Research, 125(18), 410-417.
Caicedo, C., Beutel, S., Scheper, T., Rosenwinkel, K., and Nogueira, R., (2016), “Occurrence of legionella in wastewater treatment plants linked to wastewater characteristics”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(16), 16873-16881.
Catalan, V., Garcia, F., Moreno, C., Vila, M., and Apraiz, D., (1997), “Detection of legionella pneumophila in wastewater by nested polymerase chain reaction”, Research in Microbiology, 148(1), 71-78.
Chhipi-Shrestha, G., Hewage, K., and Sadiq, R., (2017), “Microbial quality of reclaimed water for urban reuses: Probabilistic risk-based investigation and recommendations”, Science of The Total Environment, 576(15), 738-751.
Elgallal, M., Fletcher, L., and Evans, B., (2016), “Assessment of potential risks associated with chemicals in wastewater used for irrigation in arid and semiarid zones: A review”, Agricultural Water Management, 177, 419-431.
Hamilton, K.A., Hamilton, M.T., Johnson, W., Jjemba, P., Bukhari, Z., Lechevallier, M., and Haas, C.N., (2018), “Health risks from exposure to legionella in reclaimed water aerosols: Toilet flushing, spray irrigation, and cooling towers”, Water Research, 134(7), 261-279.
Jasim, S.Y., Saththasivam, J., Loganathan, K., Ogunbiyi, O.O., and Sarp, S., (2016), “Reuse of treated sewage effluent (tse) in qatar”,  Journal of Water Process Engineering, 11(3), 174-182.
Jjemba, P.K., Johnson, W., Bukhari, Z., and Lechevallier, M.W., (2015), “Occurrence and control of legionella in recycled water systems”, Pathogens, 4(3), 470-502.
Jjemba, P.K., Weinrich, L.A., Cheng, W., Giraldo, E., and Lechevallier, M.W., (2010), “Regrowth of potential opportunistic pathogens and algae in reclaimed-water distribution systems”, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(13), 4169-4178.
Lehane, S., (2014). The Iranian water crisis, Strategic Analysis Paper, Global Food and Water Crises Research Programme, Future Directions International Pty Ltd.: Perth, Australia, 11.
Mirzaee, S.A., Nikaeen, M., Hajizadeh, Y., Nabavi, B.F., and Hassanzadeh, A., (2015), “Detection of legionella spp. by a nested-pcr assay in air samples of a wastewater treatment plant and downwind distances in isfahan”, Advanced Biomedical Research, 4(48), 1-4.
WHO, (2006), Guidelines for the safe use of wasterwater excreta and greywater, Geneva, Switzerland.
Pepper, I.L., and Gerba, C.P., (2018), “Risk of infection from legionella associated with spray irrigation of reclaimed water”, Water Research, 139(12), 101-107.
Prussin ii, A.J., Schwake, D.O., and Marr, L.C., (2017). “Ten questions concerning the aerosolization and transmission of legionella in the built environment”, Building and Environment, 123(13), 684-695.
Scheierling, S.M., Bartone, C.R., Mara, D.D., and Drechsel, P., (2011), “Towards an agenda for improving wastewater use in agriculture”, Water International, 36(4), 420-440.
Journal of Water and Wastewater Science and Engineering
Volume 6, Issue 2
July 2021
Pages 58-65

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History

  • Receive Date: 06 January 2021
  • Revise Date: 07 April 2021
  • Accept Date: 10 April 2021

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